<토인비의 역사 개념>
구연상(숙명여대 기초교양학부 교수/철학박사)
영국 역사가 A. J. 토인비(Arnold Joseph Toynbee: 1889.4.14 ~ 1975.10.22.)의 주저(主著) 『역사의 연구』(歷史 硏究, A Study of History)에 따른 역사에 대한 뜻매김
이 책은 제1∼10권이 본문이고, 제11권은 역사지도이다. 이 책은 학계를 비롯하여 각계에 커다란 반응을 불러일으켰으며, 많은 비판도 나왔다. 그래서 그 비판을 반성하면서 반론을 편 것이 제12권 ‘재고찰’이다. 1934년에 집필을 시작해서 1961년까지 28년에 걸쳐 완성시켰다. 출판 시기는 1934∼1954, 1959, 1961까지이다. 이 책이 일반 독자가 읽기에는 너무 방대하기에 미국인 D. C. 서머벨(Somervell)에 의해 제10권까지를 요약한 축쇄판이 두 권으로 나오기도 했다.
그는 역사의 기초를 ‘문명’에 두었고, 문명 그 자체를 하나의 유기체로 포착[⇒ a comparative morphology, 슈펭글러 마참]하여 그 생멸(生滅)이 역사이며, 그 생멸에 일정한 규칙성을 발견하고자 했다. 그는 세계 역사상 26개의 문명권(26 civilizations)이 각각 ‘발생→성장→쇠퇴→해체’라는 공통 경로를 거쳤다고 보았다. 그는 여러 문명의 흥망성쇄(the growth and decline of civilizations) 원인을 고차문명(高次文明)의 저차문명(低次文明)에 대한 ‘도전과 응전의 상호작용’(Responding successfully to Challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of elite leaders)에서 발견한 뒤 그것을 ‘도전(挑戰)과 응전(應戰)’, ‘창조적 소수자(創造的少數者)와 지배적 소수자(支配的少數者)’, ‘내적(內的) 프롤레타리아트와 외적(外的) 프롤레타리아트’ 등의 역사 법칙으로 설명하려 했다. 이러한 설명 틀은 서구중심사관을 탈피한 역사 이론으로 볼 수 있다.
1) When a civilization responded to challenges, it grew. [⇒ 도시화의 자람]
2) Civilizations disintegrate when their leaders stopped responding creatively, and [⇒ 도시화의 허물어짐]
3) the civilizations then sank owing to nationalism, militarism, and the tyranny of a despotic minority. [⇒ 도시화의 가라앉음]
<근본 원동력>
미미시스 Mimesis [⇒ 닮아나감]
네메시스 Nemesis [⇒ 복수(復讎), 되갚음, 앙갚음]
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갈3-3_토인비의 역사 개념.hwp---------------
Arnold J. Toynbee
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
펌: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee
This article is about the universal historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee. For his uncle, the economic historian, see Arnold Toynbee.
Arnold Joseph Toynbee Born: 14 April 1889, London, England, UK Died: 22 October 1975 (aged 86), York, England, UK Nationality: British Occupation: Historian Known for: Universal history
Children : Antony Toynbee, Philip Toynbee , Lawrence Toynbee |
Somervell's abridgement of Toynbee's magnum opus
Arnold Joseph Toynbee, CH, FBA (/ˈtɔɪnbi/; 14 April 1889 – 22 October 1975) was a British historian, philosopher of history, author of numerous books and research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and King's College in the University of London. Toynbee in the 1918–1950 period was a leading specialist on international affairs.
He is best known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934–1961). With his prodigious output of papers, articles, speeches and presentations, and numerous books translated into many languages, Toynbee was a widely read and discussed scholar in the 1940s and 1950s. However, by the 1960s his magnum opus had fallen out of favor among mainstream historians and his vast readership had faded.
Biography
Toynbee (born in London on 14 April 1889) was the son of Harry Valpy Toynbee (1861–1941), secretary of the Charity Organization Society, and his wife Sarah Edith Marshall (1859–1939); his sister Jocelyn Toynbee was an archaeologist and art historian. Toynbee was the grandson of Joseph Toynbee, nephew of the 19th-century economist Arnold Toynbee (1852–1883) and descendant of prominent British intellectuals for several generations. He won scholarships to Winchester College and Balliol College, Oxford (Literae Humaniores, 1907-1911),[1] and studied briefly at the British School at Athens, an experience that influenced the genesis of his philosophy about the decline of civilizations.
In 1912 he became a tutor and fellow in ancient history at Balliol College, and in 1915 he began working for the intelligence department of the British Foreign Office. After serving as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 he served as professor of Byzantine and modern Greek studies at the University of London. It was here that Toynbee was appointed to the Koraes Chair of Modern Greek and Byzantine History, Language and Literature at King's College, although he would ultimately resign following a controversial academic dispute with the professoriate of the College.[2][3] From 1921 to 1922 he was the Manchester Guardian correspondent during the Greco-Turkish War, an experience that resulted in the publication of The Western Question in Greece and Turkey.[4] In 1925 he became research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and director of studies at the Royal Institute of International Affairs in London. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), the United Kingdoms national academy for the humanities and social sciences, in 1937.[5]
His first marriage was to Rosalind Murray (1890–1967), daughter of Gilbert Murray, in 1913; they had three sons, of whom Philip Toynbee was the second. They divorced in 1946; Toynbee then married his research assistant, Veronica M. Boulter (1893-1980), in the same year.[6] He died on 22 October 1975, age 86.
Academic and cultural influence
Toynbee on the front cover of Time magazine, 17 March 1947
Michael Lang says that for much of the twentieth century,
Toynbee was perhaps the world’s most read, translated, and discussed living scholar. His output was enormous, hundreds of books, pamphlets, and articles. Of these, scores were translated into thirty different languages....the critical reaction to Toynbee constitutes a veritable intellectual history of the midcentury: we find a long list of the period’s most important historians, Beard, Braudel, Collingwood, and so on.[7]
In his best-known work, A Study of History, published 1934–1961, Toynbee
...examined the rise and fall of 26 civilizations in the course of human history, and he concluded that they rose by responding successfully to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of elite leaders.[8]
A Study of History was both a commercial and academic phenomenon. In the U.S. alone, more than seven thousand sets of the ten-volume edition had been sold by 1955. Most people, including scholars, relied on the very clear one-volume abridgement [요약, 단축] of the first six volumes by Somervell, which appeared in 1947; the abridgement sold over 300,000 copies in the U.S. The press printed innumerable discussions of Toynbee's work, not to mention there being countless lectures and seminars. Toynbee himself often participated. He appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1947, with an article describing his work as "the most provocative work of historical theory written in England since Karl Marx’s Capital”,[9] and was a regular commentator on BBC (examining the history of and reasons for the current hostility between east and west, and considering how non-westerners view the western world).[10][11]
Canadian historians were especially receptive to Toynbee's work in the late 1940s. The Canadian economic historian Harold Adams Innis (1894–1952) was a notable example. Following Toynbee and others (Spengler, Kroeber, Sorokin, Cochrane), Innis examined the flourishing of civilizations in terms of administration of empires and media of communication.[12]
Toynbee's overall theory was taken up by some scholars, for example, Ernst Robert Curtius, as a sort of paradigm in the post-war period. Curtius wrote as follows in the opening pages of European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1953 English translation), following close on Toynbee, as he sets the stage for his vast study of medieval Latin literature. Curtius wrote, "How do cultures, and the historical entities which are their media, arise, grow and decay? only a comparative morphology [⇒ 문명 전체를 한데 견주는 모습갈, 이것은 슈펭글러 마참(ᄉᆞ)] with exact procedures can hope to answer these questions. It was Arnold J. Toynbee who undertook the task."[13]
After 1960, Toynbee's ideas faded both in academia and the media, to the point of seldom being cited today.[14][15] In general, historians pointed to his preference of myths, allegories, and religion over factual data. His critics argued that his conclusions are more of a Christian moralist rather than a historian.[16] In his 2011 article for the Journal of History titled "Globalization and Global History in Toynbee," Michael Lang wrote:
To many world historians today, Arnold J. Toynbee is regarded like an embarrassing uncle at a house party. He gets a requisite introduction by virtue of his place on the family tree, but he is quickly passed over for other friends and relatives.[17]
However, his work continued to be referenced by some classical historians, because "his training and surest touch is in the world of classical antiquity."[18] His roots in classical literature are also manifested by similarities between his approach and that of classical historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides.[19] Comparative history, by which his approach is often categorized, has been in the doldrums.[20]
Political influence in foreign policy
While the writing of the Study was under way, Toynbee produced numerous smaller works and served as director of foreign research of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (1939–43) and director of the research department of the Foreign Office (1943–46); he also retained his position at the London School of Economics until his retirement in 1956.[8]
Toynbee worked for the Political Intelligence Department of the British Foreign Office during World War I and served as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He was director of studies at Chatham House, Balliol College, Oxford University, 1924–43. Chatham House conducted research for the British Foreign Office and was an important intellectual resource during World War II when it was transferred to London. With his research assistant, Veronica M. Boulter, Toynbee was co-editor of the RIIA's annual Survey of International Affairs, which became the "bible" for international specialists in Britain.[21][22]
Meeting with Adolf Hitler
While on a visit in Berlin in 1936 to address the Nazi Law Society, Toynbee was invited to have a private interview with Adolf Hitler, at Hitler's request.[23] Hitler emphasized his limited expansionist aim of building a greater German nation, and his desire for British understanding and cooperation. Toynbee believed that Hitler was sincere and endorsed Hitler's message in a confidential memorandum for the British prime minister and foreign secretary.[24]
Russia
Toynbee was troubled by the Russian Revolution, for he saw Russia as a non-Western society and the revolution as a threat to Western society.[25] However, in 1952 he argued that the Soviet Union had been a victim of Western aggression. He portrayed the Cold War as a religious competition that pitted a Marxist materialist heresy [이교] against the West's spiritual Christian heritage—a heritage that had already been foolishly rejected by a secularized West. A heated debate ensued; an editorial in The Times promptly attacked Toynbee for treating communism as a "spiritual force".[26]
Greece and the Middle East
Toynbee was a leading analyst of developments in the Middle East. His support for Greece and hostility [적대] to the Turks during World War I had gained him an appointment to the Koraes Chair of Modern Greek and Byzantine History at King's College, University of London.[2] However, after the war he changed to a pro-Turkish position, accusing Greece's military government in occupied Turkish territory of atrocities and massacres. This earned him the enmity of the wealthy Greeks who had endowed the chair, and in 1924 he was forced to resign the position.
His stance during World War I reflected less sympathy for the Arab cause and took a pro-Zionist outlook. He also expressed support for a Jewish State in Palestine, which he believed had "begun to recover its ancient prosperity" as a result. Toynbee investigated Zionism in 1915 at the Information Department of the Foreign Office, and in 1917 he published a memorandum with his colleague Lewis Namier which supported exclusive Jewish political rights in Palestine. In 1922, however, he was influenced by the Palestine Arab delegation which was visiting London, and began to adopt their views. His subsequent writings reveal his changing outlook on the subject, and by the late 1940s he had moved away from the Zionist cause and toward the Arab camp.
The views Toynbee expressed in the 1950s continued to oppose the formation of a Jewish state, partly out of his concern that it would increase the risk of a nuclear confrontation. However, as a result of Toynbee's debate in January 1961 with Dr. Yaakov Herzog, the Israeli ambassador to Canada, Toynbee softened his view and called on Israel to fulfill its special "mission to make contributions to worldwide efforts to prevent the outbreak of nuclear war."[27][28] In his article "Jewish Rights in Palestine",[29] he challenged the views of the editor of the Jewish Quarterly Review, historian and talmudic scholar Solomon Zeitlin, who published his rebuke, "Jewish Rights in Eretz Israel (Palestine)"[30] in the same issue.[31] Toynbee maintained, among other contentions, that the Jewish people have neither historic nor legal claims to Palestine, stating that the Arab
"population’s human rights to their homes and property over-ride all other rights in cases where claims conflict." He did concede that the Jews, "being the only surviving representatives of any of the pre-Arab inhabitants of Palestine, have a further claim to a national home in Palestine." But that claim, he held, is valid only in so far as it can be implemented without injury to the rights and to the legitimate interests of the native Arab population of Palestine."[32]
Dialogue with Daisaku Ikeda
In 1972, Toynbee met with Daisaku Ikeda, president of Soka Gakkai International (SGI), who condemned the "demonic nature" of the use of nuclear weapons under any circumstances. Toynbee had the view that the atomic bomb was an invention that had caused warfare to escalate from a political scale to catastrophic proportions and threatened humanity's very existence. In his dialogue with Ikeda, Toynbee stated his worry that humankind would not be able to strengthen ethical behavior and achieve self-mastery "in spite of the widespread awareness that the price of failing to respond to the moral challenge of the atomic age may be the self-liquidation of our species."
The two men first met on 5 May 1972 in London. In May 1973, Ikeda again flew to London to meet with Toynbee for 40 hours over a period of 10 days. Their dialogue and ongoing correspondence culminated in the publication of Choose Life, a record of their views on critical issues confronting humanity. The book has been published in 24 languages to date.[33] Toynbee also wrote the foreword to the English edition of Ikeda's best-known book, The Human Revolution, which has sold more than 7 million copies worldwide.[34]
An exhibition celebrating the 30th anniversary of Toynbee and Ikeda's first meeting was presented in SGI's centers around the world in 2005, showcasing contents of the dialogues between them, as well as Ikeda's discussions for peace with over 1,500 of the world's scholars, intellects, and activists. Original letters Toynbee and Ikeda exchanged were also displayed.[35]
In 1984 his granddaughter Polly Toynbee wrote a critical article for The Guardian on meeting Daisaku Ikeda.[36]
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